Encyclopedia of Psychological Trauma

Psychological trauma is a persistent reaction of the psyche to an event (or series of events) that exceeded the person's ability to cope. Trauma is not equal to the event itself: the same event may become traumatic for one person and not affect another. The key feature of trauma is impaired integration of experience : the memory is not «archived» as ordinary autobiographical memory, but remains in a «raw,» unprocessed form, continuing to evoke strong emotions and bodily reactions when encountering triggers.

This encyclopedia covers the entire traumatic spectrum : from adverse life experiences and situational traumas to acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and complex PTSD (cPTSD) — the most severe forms arising from prolonged, repeated traumatization.

1. What Is Trauma: Definition and Essence

2. The Traumatic Spectrum: Complete Scale

Trauma is not a binary category («present» / «absent»), but a spectrum of states — from subclinical forms to severe disorders requiring long-term psychotherapy. Below is the complete scale — from less severe to more severe forms.

2.1. Adverse Life Experience

Not every negative experience becomes trauma, but it can leave a mark. These are events that do not meet the «life threat» criterion but cause significant discomfort and may trigger maladaptive beliefs.

Examples	Potential Consequences
Public humiliation at school	Social anxiety, fear of public speaking
Criticism from a significant adult	Perfectionism, fear of mistakes, self-criticism
Peer rejection	Fear of rejection, avoidance of intimacy
Unsuccessful first relationship experience	Fear of intimacy, avoidance patterns
Finding oneself in an awkward situation	Rumination, avoidance of similar situations

By themselves, these events usually do not cause PTSD, but with accumulation (cumulative effect) they can create a foundation for anxiety disorders and depression. In EMDR therapy, such memories are often processed as «small t» traumas.

2.2. Acute Stress Reaction

A normal, physiological response of the body to an extreme stressor. Occurs immediately (minutes–hours) after the event. Characterized by:

• A state of daze, narrowing of consciousness
• Disorientation, confusion
• Autonomic symptoms: tachycardia, trembling, sweating
• Agitation (motor excitation) or stupor

Resolves within several hours – 2–3 days . If symptoms persist longer, it may indicate acute stress disorder.

2.3. Situational Trauma

Trauma caused by a specific single event that is subjectively perceived as threatening, but does not necessarily meet Criterion A of PTSD diagnosis (threat to life or physical integrity).

Examples	Typical Reaction
Sudden job loss	Loss of identity, anxiety about the future, anger
Breakup of a significant relationship	Grieving, rumination, fear of new relationships
Financial collapse / bankruptcy	Shame, catastrophizing, avoidance of financial topics
Public failure (presentation, speech)	Stage fright, avoidance, impostor syndrome
Partner infidelity	Breach of trust, hypervigilance in relationships

Situational traumas respond well to short-term therapy (3–8 sessions of EMDR or CBT).

2.4. Adjustment Disorder (F43.2 / 6B43)

A clinically significant condition arising in response to an identifiable psychosocial stressor. Symptoms develop within 1 month after the stressor and include:

• Emotional disturbances: depressed mood, anxiety, irritability
• Behavioral disturbances: social isolation, avoidance of responsibilities
• Decreased functioning in professional and social spheres

Symptoms do not meet criteria for PTSD or a depressive episode, but are sufficient for diagnosis. Duration is usually up to 6 months after the stressor ceases.

2.5. Acute Stress Disorder — ASD (F43.0 / 6B40)

Occurs within 3 days – 1 month after a traumatic event meeting Criterion A (threat of death, serious injury). Symptoms are similar to PTSD but limited in duration.

Main ASD symptoms (at least 9 of 14 possible must be present):

• Intrusion: intrusive memories, flashbacks, nightmares
• Negative mood: inability to experience positive emotions
• Dissociation: feeling of unreality, derealization, depersonalization
• Avoidance: attempts to avoid thoughts, feelings, and reminders of the event
• Hyperarousal: sleep disturbances, irritability, hypervigilance

2.6. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder — PTSD (F43.1 / 6B40)

PTSD is the most well-known and studied traumatic disorder. It develops after an event that involved actual or perceived threat of death, serious injury, or sexual violence .

Dissociative Subtype of PTSD (identified in DSM-5): additionally includes symptoms of depersonalization (feeling detached from one's own body/thoughts) and/or derealization (feeling of unreality of the surrounding world). Occurs in approximately 15–30% of PTSD patients.

2.7. Complex PTSD — cPTSD (6B41)

Complex PTSD is a relatively new diagnosis, first officially included in ICD-11 (2018, effective 2022). It arises as a result of prolonged, repeated traumatization from which the person could not or cannot escape.

cPTSD Diagnosis per ICD-11: all three PTSD criteria (intrusion, avoidance, hyperarousal) + three DSO clusters + significant functional impairment.

3. Types of Trauma by Nature of Event

Type	Examples	Nature	Typical Outcome
Type I Trauma (monotrauma)	Car accident, assault, terrorist attack, natural disaster	Single, sudden, shock event	PTSD (without DSO symptoms)
Type II Trauma (chronic)	Prolonged violence, war, bullying, domestic violence	Repeated, prolonged, often interpersonal	cPTSD (with DSO symptoms)
Developmental Trauma	Neglect, emotional deprivation, unstable attachment	Arises in childhood, disrupts normal development	cPTSD, attachment disorders, personality disturbances
Intergenerational Trauma	Consequences of the Holocaust, repressions, wars in descendants	Transmitted through family patterns, upbringing, epigenetics	Anxiety, hypervigilance, family scripts
Collective Trauma	Pandemic, war, genocide, natural disaster	Affects entire communities	Mass PTSD, social disintegration
Vicarious Trauma	Witness trauma: doctors, rescuers, psychologists	Arises from observing the suffering of others	Burnout, secondary PTSD, compassion fatigue
Medical Trauma	Major surgery, ICU stay, cancer diagnosis, childbirth	Related to medical events — life threat in a medical context	PTSD, avoidance of doctors, health anxiety
Betrayal Trauma	Infidelity, deception by a trusted person, institutional betrayal	Violation of basic trust in a significant other or institution	Trust disturbances, avoidance of intimacy, dissociation

4. How Trauma Affects the Brain

The «Triune Response» Model: when encountering a trigger, the «reptilian brain» (amygdala) activates the alarm signal; the hippocampus cannot contextualize — «that was then»; the prefrontal cortex «shuts down» and cannot calm. The person reacts as if the trauma is happening right now. EMDR therapy works to restore the connection between these structures.

5. Symptoms and Diagnostic Criteria — Comparison Table

6. Paths to Healing: Scientifically Proven Methods

Modern evidence-based psychotherapy offers several methods with confirmed effectiveness for treating the consequences of trauma.

7. The Role of EMDR in Trauma Therapy

For cPTSD, EMDR is used in an adapted protocol: more time is devoted to the stabilization and resourcing phase before beginning the processing of traumatic material. cPTSD therapy is usually longer (from 6–12 months or more) and requires an integrative approach.

8. Center Specialists for Trauma Work

Specialist	Trauma Specialization	Works With
Dmitry Volkov	Clinical psychologist, PTSD & cPTSD specialist	PTSD, cPTSD, consequences of violence, military experience, phobias, dissociative disorders
Ilya Tsar	EMDR therapist, CBT psychologist	PTSD, cPTSD, adverse childhood, emigration, shame and guilt
Vasily Serov	Psychiatrist, EMDR therapist	Severe forms of PTSD, trauma-related depressive episodes, medication support
Elena Orlova	Neuropsychologist, EMDR therapist	TBI consequences + trauma, neurocognitive impairments, childhood trauma
Anna Ivanova	Clinical psychologist, EMDR therapist	Anxiety disorders, panic attacks, consequences of traumatization

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9. Self-Help and Resources

Self-help does not replace professional therapy, but can be an important supportive strategy.

10. Frequently Asked Questions